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Racial Inequality In The United States Wikipedia

Leo Migdal
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racial inequality in the united states wikipedia

In the United States, racial inequality refers to the social inequality and advantages and disparities that affect different races. These can also be seen as a result of historic oppression, inequality of inheritance, or racism and prejudice, de jure and de facto segregation,[1] specifically against racial minority groups.[2] A 2021 survey of 1,422 members of the American Economic Association found that 78 percent of professional economists generally agreed with the statement: "Differences in economic outcomes between whites and blacks in the US... There are vast differences in wealth across racial groups in the United States. The wealth gap between Caucasian and African American families substantially increased from $85,000 in 1984 to $236,500 in 2009. According to survey data presented by the ACLU, the wealth gap as of 2018 stands at $33,000.

While the average income for a white family of three is roughly $84,600, a Black family of the same size would only earn $51,600.[4] Many causes relate to racial inequality such as: Years of... Under slavery, African Americans were treated as property. After the American Civil War, Black sharecroppers became trapped in debt. African Americans were rarely able to homestead. The Freedman's Savings Bank failed, losing many Black assets.[8][9] Exclusions from Social Security disproportionately affected African Americans.

Savings were spent for retirement instead of handed down as inheritance. African Americans are less likely to receive an inheritance and more likely to aid poor family members.[10] Racism has been reflected in discriminatory laws, practices, and actions (including violence) against racial or ethnic groups throughout the history of the United States. Since the early colonial era, White Americans have generally enjoyed legally or socially-sanctioned privileges and rights that have been denied to members of various ethnic or minority groups. European Americans have enjoyed advantages in matters of citizenship, criminal procedure, education, immigration, land acquisition, and voting rights. Before 1865, most African Americans were enslaved; since the abolition of slavery, they have faced severe restrictions on their political, social, and economic freedoms.

Native Americans have suffered genocide, forced removals, and massacres, and they continue to face discrimination. Hispanics, Middle Easterns, Asians, and Pacific Islanders have also been the victims of discrimination. Racism has manifested itself in a variety of ways, including ethnic conflicts, genocide, slavery, lynchings, segregation, Native American reservations, boarding schools, racist immigration and naturalization laws, and internment camps.[a] Formal racial discrimination was largely... Racial politics remains a major phenomenon in the U.S., and racism continues to be reflected in socioeconomic inequality.[1][b] Into the 21st century, research has uncovered extensive evidence of racial discrimination, in various sectors of... society, including the criminal justice system, business, the economy, housing, health care, the media, and politics. In the view of the United Nations and the U.S.

Human Rights Network [de], "discrimination in the United States permeates all aspects of life and extends to all communities of color."[3] The Naturalization Act of 1790 set the first uniform rules for the granting of United States citizenship by naturalization, which limited naturalization to "free white person[s]," thus, excluding Native Americans, indentured servants, slaves, free... Citizenship status determined one's eligibility for many legal and political rights, including suffrage rights at both the federal and state level, the right to hold certain government offices, the right to serve jury duty,... The second Militia Act of 1792 also provided for the conscription of every "free able-bodied white male citizen".[4] Tennessee's 1834 Constitution included a provision: "the free white men of this State have a right... The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, made under the Indian Removal Act of 1830, allowed Choctaw Indians who chose to remain in Mississippi to gain recognition as U.S. citizens.

They were the first non-European ethnic group to become entitled to U.S. citizenship. Racial inequality in the U.S. means that people from different races often face unequal treatment and opportunities. This is largely due to a history of slavery, racism, and unfair systems that still affect people today—especially minority groups.In a 2021 survey, most economists (78%) agreed that economic differences between Black and white... There is a big wealth gap between races.

For example, the gap between white and Black families grew from $85,000 in 1984 to $236,500 in 2009. Factors like home ownership, income, unemployment, education, and inheritance contribute to this.[1][2] In 1863, Black Americans owned just 0.5% of U.S. wealth. By 2019, that had only risen to about 1.5%. Slavery treated Black people as property.

After slavery ended, many were trapped in poverty as sharecroppers. Black Americans were also excluded from programs like homesteading and Social Security. Many lost savings when the Freedman’s Bank collapsed. Because of these setbacks, Black families are less likely to inherit wealth and more likely to support relatives financially.[3][4][5] The racial wealth gap is clear when comparing the earnings and wealth of different racial groups. For instance, middle-class Black Americans make about 70 cents for every dollar a white person in the same class earns.

Race is one of the biggest factors in determining wealth.[6] Researchers Krivo and Kaufman found that when income goes up, it helps white Americans build wealth more than it does for minorities. For example, a $10,000 raise increases home value for white Americans by about $17,770, but only by $15,900 for Black Americans, $15,150 for Hispanics, and $9,500 for Asians.[7] Income inequality has fluctuated considerably in the United States since measurements began around 1915, moving in an arc between peaks in the 1920s and 2000s, with a lower level of inequality from approximately 1950-1980... The U.S. has the highest level of income inequality among its (post-industrialized) peers.[1] When measured for all households, U.S.

income inequality is comparable to other developed countries before taxes and transfers, but is among the highest after taxes and transfers, meaning the U.S. shifts relatively less income from higher income households to lower income households. In 2016, average market income was $15,600 for the lowest quintile and $280,300 for the highest quintile. The degree of inequality accelerated within the top quintile, with the top 1% at $1.8 million, approximately 30 times the $59,300 income of the middle quintile.[2] The economic and political impacts of inequality may include slower GDP growth, reduced income mobility, higher poverty rates, greater usage of household debt leading to increased risk of financial crises, and political polarization.[3][4] Causes... Measurement is debated, as inequality measures vary significantly, for example, across datasets[6][7] or whether the measurement is taken based on cash compensation (market income) or after taxes and transfer payments.

The Gini coefficient is a widely accepted statistic that applies comparisons across jurisdictions, with a zero indicating perfect equality and 1 indicating maximum inequality. Further, various public and private data sets measure those incomes, e.g., from the Congressional Budget Office (CBO),[2] the Internal Revenue Service, and Census.[8] According to the Census Bureau, income inequality reached then record levels... U.S. tax and transfer policies are progressive and therefore reduce effective income inequality, as rates of tax generally increase as taxable income increases. As a group, the lowest earning workers, especially those with dependents, pay no income taxes and may actually receive a small subsidy from the federal government (from child credits and the Earned Income Tax... Gini coefficient was .59 based on market income, but was reduced to .42 after taxes and transfers, according to Congressional Budget Office (CBO) figures.

The top 1% share of market income rose from 9.6% in 1979 to a peak of 20.7% in 2007, before falling to 17.5% by 2016. After taxes and transfers, these figures were 7.4%, 16.6%, and 12.5%, respectively.[2] Unequal access to education in the United States results in unequal outcomes for students. Disparities in academic access among students in the United States are the result of multiple factors including government policies, school choice, family wealth, parenting style, implicit bias towards students' race or ethnicity, and the... Educational inequality contributes to a number of broader problems in the United States, including income inequality and increasing prison populations.[1] Educational inequalities in the United States are wide-ranging, and many potential solutions have been... The earliest forms of education in the U.S.

were primarily religious. Education in the 17th and 18th centuries aimed to teach the children of white colonists how to read the Bible and abide by Puritan values.[2][3] For Indigenous children, the formal education was generally a... In the early 20th century, Indigenous children were forcibly taken from their families and enrolled in boarding schools.[5][6] The purpose of this was to "civilize" and assimilate Indigenous communities into American society. Historically, African Americans in the United States experienced trouble accessing quality education. In colonial times, many white people felt that if Black people, particularly enslaved Black people, were to become educated, they would start to challenge the systems of power that kept them oppressed.[7] Southern states... As a result, several states enacted laws that prohibited slaves from learning to read or write—commonly referred to as anti-literacy statutes.

Although punishment varied from state to state, several southern states (Virginia, South Carolina, Mississippi, and Georgia) would criminally prosecute any slave who attempted to learn to read or write.[8] In some cases, white people... When some religious groups attempted to establish schools for African Americans, this was often met with severe opposition from white community members.[citation needed] The Civil War and the emancipation of slaves led to a push for more education opportunities for African Americans. Most Black people did not have access to education until the Reconstruction era following the Civil War, when public schools started to become more common.[9] Newly freed African Americans prioritized education, and many considered education an effective way to empower their communities. In southern states, Black residents engaged in collective action and collaborated with the Freedmen's Bureau, northern philanthropic organizations, and other white groups to ensure their access to public education.[10] During the Reconstruction era, the...

Racism in the United States traces negative attitudes and views on ethnicity and race.[1] A number of Americans said in 2019 Donald Trump, then-President, had made racial relationships worse.[1] African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanics, Latinos and Native Americans in the United States have said that they are victims of racism and racial profiling while in college, at work or on streets.[2] In 2020 and 2021, protests erupted across the United States. Puerto Rican, Central Americans and Mexicans went across the border, including unaccompanied children and minors. African American and Asian Americans were attacked.[3]

As of July 2016, European Americans are the largest number of people. Hispanics and Latino are the largest minority population. Many African Americans live either in the Southern United States, the Midwestern United States or Western United States. Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC)

Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA) Special Inspector General for Pandemic Recovery (SIGPR) Race in the United States criminal justice system refers to the unique experiences and disparities in the United States in regard to the policing and prosecuting of various races. There have been different outcomes for different racial groups in convicting and sentencing offenders in the United States criminal justice system, although prior arrests and criminal history is also a factor.[1][2] Experts and analysts... Academic research indicates that the over-representation of some racial minorities in the criminal justice system can in part be explained by socioeconomic factors, such as poverty, exposure to poor neighborhoods, poor access to public... Research also indicates that there is extensive racial and ethnic discrimination by police and the judicial system.[18][19][20][21][22] A substantial academic literature has compared police searches (showing that contraband is found at higher rates in...

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